Istanbul is one of 81 provinces in Turkey. The eponymous city, which occupies much of the province’s total land area, is the largest in Europe and the 16th-largest in the world. The city is a crossroads of cultures and continents, home to Islamic and Christian influences, and considered the border of Europe and Asia. Despite its massive population, Istanbul is home to numerous parks, hiking trails, and even mountains. In fact, there are 303 named mountains in Istanbul. The highest and most prominent mountain is Aydos Dağı (537 m / 1,762 ft), home to the famous Aydos Dağı ruins.
Istanbul is strategically located as the only city in the world that spans two continents: Europe and Asia. It is one of the world’s eternal cities, having been settled around the 7th century BCE.
The city is situated at the junction of the Bosphorus Strait, which connects the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara and, eventually, the greater Mediterranean. Europe is to the West of the Bosphorus, with Asia to the East. Istanbul Province, covering an area of approximately 5,343 square kilometers, includes Europe’s largest city and numerous suburbs, as well as rural farmland and even national parks.
The province is bounded by the Black Sea to the north and the Marmara Sea to the south, with the Catalca Peninsula forming the western boundary and the Kocaeli Peninsula extending to the east. The geographic location has made Istanbul a cultural and economic crossroads for centuries, from its evolution from Byzantium to Constantinople to Istanbul.
Istanbul's topography features rolling hills, coastal plains, and river valleys. In addition to the mighty Bosphorus, the province is traversed by small rivers like the Kagithane and Riva. To the north, the Belgrad Forest and the coastal cliffs along the Black Sea contrast with the densely populated southern areas.
The Bosphorus Strait is the most defining geographical feature. The cultural balance between Christianity and Islam has hinged along the Bosphorus for the last millennium.
Belgrad Forest is located just north of central Istanbul, about 30 minutes from the city center. It is a sprawling natural reserve covering over 5,000 hectares (50 square kilometers) with dense native oak and beech forests. The forest offers plenty of hiking and cycling trails, picnic spots, and reservoirs, such as the Bentler Nature Park. Its proximity to the city makes it a favorite getaway.
Gülhane Park is situated in the historic Sultanahmet area. It’s one of Istanbul’s oldest and most iconic green spaces, featuring wide walking paths, fountains, and flower displays. The park’s elevated location provides stunning views of the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus.
Emirgan Park is famous for its lush gardens and its annual Tulip Festival in April. The park spans nearly 50 hectares on the European side of the Bosphorus and has walking paths, ponds, and Ottoman-style pavilions.
Yıldız Park is part of the Yıldız Palace complex, nestled between the districts of Beşiktaş and Ortaköy. It offers landscaped gardens, terraced pathways, and ornamental ponds. Additionally, the park's elevation affords breathtaking views of the Bosphorus.
Polonezköy is one of Istanbul's largest green spaces, eclipsed only by the Belgrad Forest. It’s located approximately 30 kilometers from the city center in the Beykoz district on the Asian side, about 40 minutes from the city center. The park is named after the village of Polonezköy, or "Polish Village;" it was originally established in the mid-19th century by Polish immigrants. Today, the park spans nearly 30 square kilometers and is a popular retreat from the crowded city.
Istanbul’s geology is one of its most critical characteristics.
That’s because Istanbul is proximate to the North Anatolian Fault, one of the world’s most active strike-slip fault systems. This fault marks the boundary between the Eurasian and Anatolian Plates. The fault runs south of the city under the Marmara Sea; the Bosphorus Strait is thought to have formed due to this tectonic activity (combined with rising sea levels during the Holocene epoch).
Istanbul has experienced significant earthquakes throughout history, including the devastating quakes of 1509, 1766, and 1894. The mix of consolidated rock and soft sediments amplifies the impact of seismic waves, which poses a serious risk to urban development; soft ground conditions can exacerbate earthquake damage.
Unfortunately, most residents are pessimistic about the city's chances in the next century. Istanbul is likely to experience a quake with a magnitude of 7.0 - 7.5 in the 21st century, and an estimated 500,000 buildings are vulnerable to collapse. A 2023 quake in south-central Turkey killed over 60,000 people in Turkey and Syria and could be a foreshadowing of the disaster awaiting Istanbul.
While the impending earthquake is a serious matter of importance to Instanbul locals, the chances of one occurring during a visit are low, and you shouldn’t be dissuaded from experiencing the city.
Istanbul’s ecology is a combination of human-adapted landscapes and nature reserves. Visitors may be surprised to learn just how much natural green space exists within the province, within an hour’s drive from central Istanbul.
Istanbul features a “hot summer” Mediterranean climate, with mild, wet winters and hot, drier summers. Societies have long coveted this rare climate type; Istanbul owes its success as a metropolis to its great climate. The Bosphorus, Black Sea, and Marmara Sea all moderate the city’s temperature throughout the year.
The northern regions closer to the Black Sea are cooler and receive more rainfall than the southern areas near the Marmara Sea. Moreover, urbanization contributes to a local heat island effect in the south.
One exception to the balmy Mediterranean climate is the frequency of sea-effect snow during the winters. Despite its proximity to the sea, Istanbul is exposed to the cold, northern expanse of Eastern Europe. When cold winds blow over the relatively warm seawater, the city can get buried in snow, sometimes more than 30 cm (12 in).
Istanbul also has a significant smog issue, with notoriously high levels of air pollutants like nitrogen oxides. The heat island effect, climate change, and suffocating pollution can mean the city gets quite hot in the summer, especially as you drift away from the coast.
Despite its concrete sprawl, Istanbul supports an array of green spaces and, therefore, flora and fauna. Native forests include species adapted to the city's Mediterranean climate, such as holm oak, stone pine, and scrub bush. The Atatürk Arboretum, near Belgrad Forest, is home to over 2,000 plant species.
The Bosphorus Strait serves as a migratory route for birds traveling between Europe and Africa, with species like storks, pelicans, and raptors commonly observed during migration seasons.
The waters surrounding Istanbul feature edible marine life like anchovies and mackerel. Meanwhile, dolphins navigate the nutrient-rich currents of the Bosphorus and are an icon of the city. Unfortunately, their numbers have been declining and are rarely spotted, especially in the channel itself.
Notably, stray cats have become a part of Istanbul’s cultural identity. Cats are revered in Islamic tradition because of their perceived cleanliness. The city is home to at least 100,000 stray cats, possibly much more. Cats are generally treated with respect, and locals often provide food and shelter around the city.
Conservation is a mixed bag in Istanbul. On the one hand, large green spaces like Belgrad Forest make hiking possible just 20 minutes from the city center. On the other hand, massive development projects have put Istanbul’s natural environment on the defensive.
Currently, the Istanbul Canal is one of the world’s largest construction projects. The canal aims to create a new passageway between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara, allowing ships to forego the Bosphorus. It’s a diplomatic bag of worms that could merit an entire book on the politics. However, the environmental outlook isn’t much better. Combined with a new airport project, the construction would effectively clear several thousand hectares of native forest and wetland.
Perhaps even more consequently, it could disrupt the balance of salt water between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara, though scientists are unsure how this would play out. The Black Sea is about 50 cm higher and is less salty, leading to speculation that large amounts of its water could disrupt the balance of the Marmara.
The project is also likely to further deplete Istanbul’s already precarious freshwater supply. The city's population has grown from 3 million to over 15 million in 2025, straining its limited freshwater resources.
The one silver lining to this black environmental cloud is that the Bosphorus could see less traffic. The channel is heavily polluted from the tens of thousands of commercial ships that pass annually. Dolphins, which were once common, are now rarely seen.
Istanbul is one of Earth’s most eternal cities. Officially, it is about a century younger than Rome, though both cities were home to various settlements for several thousand years before they became cities. Since its founding, the arc of history here has taken many fascinating turns and is worth a lifetime of exploration. Many of the ancient sites still survive, especially since Turkey was spared from damage during World War II. Let’s dive in.
Istanbul's history dates back to prehistoric times. Archaeological finds at Yenikapı reveal communities that thrived along the coastline of the Sea of Marmara around 8,000 years ago. The first organized city in the area was Byzantium, founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BCE. Byzantium became a trading hub, benefiting from its control of maritime routes between Europe and Asia. This theme has persisted throughout history; the city’s geographic advantages made it a coveted prize for empires.
In 330 CE, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great renamed the city Constantinople and made it the capital of the Roman Empire. As the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople flourished for over a millennium, especially after the fall of Rome and the Western Roman Empire in the 6th century.
The famous Hagia Sophia was built in 537 CE, during the city’s apex around the fall of Rome. It was originally a church, though it was converted into a mosque around 1,000 years later during the Ottoman Empire. The city's formidable walls protected it from invasions and survived numerous sieges from Arabs and Bulgarians.
In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II—Mehmed the Conquerer—who transformed it into the capital of the Ottoman Empire and renamed it Istanbul. It was the end of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of Ottoman power. Under Ottoman rule, Istanbul became an Islamic epicenter, and famous marvels like the Blue Mosque and Topkapi Palace were constructed during this period.
After a long decline and a defeat in World War I, the Ottoman Empire eventually collapsed in 1922. Prior to the dissolution, the city was briefly occupied by Allied forces until the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. Although Ankara was declared the new capital, Istanbul remained the country's largest and most influential city.
Istanbul has experienced immense population growth over the last 45 years, more than quadrupling during that time. Turkey has become one of the largest economies in the world and is now participating in the G20 summit. Immigration and manufacturing ushered in a new economic era for the city.
The good news is that the average Istanbul citizen is much better off today than 50 years ago. However, the city and its environment have taken a hit.
Air and water pollution are major problems. The Bosphorus has hundreds of large ships passing through daily and is significantly compromised by oil and chemical leaks. The air quality in Istanbul often reaches hazardous levels.
As the population grows, the city expands outwards into farmland and forest. Urban sprawl has consumed much of the green space around the city in the past 50 years. Moreover, many of the apartments built in the 20th century are of dubious quality and prone to collapse in the event of a major earthquake (considered very likely in the 21st century). The construction of the Istanbul Canal and airport will further degrade the local ecosystems.
That means that Istanbul's parks, hills, forests, and other green spaces are more important than ever.
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Aydos Hill is Istanbul's highest point and offers breathtaking views of one of the world’s largest metropolitan areas. The hike to the top is moderately challenging, with about 400 meters (1,300 ft) of elevation gain. The surrounding forest also has a lake, perfect for a picnic after the hike.
Belgrad Forest is a favorite destination for hikers. It offers several well-marked trails, the most popular of which is the 6-kilometer (4-mile) loop around the Bentler Nature Park. For a more challenging hike, venture deeper into the forest to explore less-traveled routes. The proximity to the city makes Belgrad Forest an ideal day trip for hikers.
Polonezköy Nature Park has trails ranging from 3 to 10 kilometers, suitable for all fitness levels. The park's 30 square kilometers of forest feature chestnut forests, peaceful meadows, and glimpses of the local wildlife. After the hike, check out the nearby Polonezköy village to indulge in some traditional Polish cuisine.
On Istanbul’s northeastern coast, the Şile and Ağva region offers hikes along the Black Sea coast, like the Kilimli Bay Trekking Trail to Kilimli Cove, Istanbul’s best beach. Another popular route is the Şile Lighthouse Trail. Ağva Beach is even more accessible, right from the village of Ağva. These trails are just under two hours from the city on the Asian side; it’s best to come out for a big day or a weekend.
Istanbul is one of those cities we’ve all seen pictures of, even if we don’t know it. The European side is west of the Bosphorus, with the Asian Side to the East. We’ve discussed the parks, mountains, and recreation around Istanbul; now, let's focus on the city.
Much of the magic takes place in the old city where Constantinople once stood. Now, this section is called the historic peninsula, and it’s home to many of the city’s most famous buildings.
The southern tip of the historic peninsula is the Sultanahmet. The Hagia Sophia is a masterpiece of Byzantine and Ottoman architecture that has served as a church, mosque, and now a museum. Just steps away, the Blue Mosque features blue İznik tiles and curated courtyards. The ancient Basilica Cistern is an ancient subterranean water storage facility with a forest of marble columns and mysterious Medusa heads.
Even though it is a major shipping corridor, no visit to Istanbul is complete without a cruise along the Bosphorus Strait. Most notable are the Ottoman-era mansions (yali) and palaces like Dolmabahçe and Beylerbeyi. A sunset cruise highlights the forest of domes, minarets, and modern skyscrapers in a golden hue.
Though most of us haven’t been to Istanbul, we certainly know its cuisine! Istanbul’s culinary scene has spread its roots far and wide, with Turkish restaurants following immigrants across the globe. But nothing beats the real thing. Wandering through the Grand Bazaar or Spice Bazaar, the scent of saffron, sumac, and freshly ground coffee fills the air. Street food staples include simit (sesame bread rings) and balık ekmek (fish sandwiches) near the Galata Bridge, which crosses the Golden Horn. Restaurants serve mezes, kebabs, baklava, and much more.
Beyond the well-trodden landmarks, Istanbul’s charm lies in its neighborhoods. With beautiful, historic architecture, walking anywhere around the residential streets of the old city is sure to please. In Karaköy, contemporary art galleries and cafes coexist with ancient apartments. Cross the Galata Bridge to Beyoğlu, where Istiklal Avenue offers everything from boutique shops to lively nightlife. On the Asian side, Kadıköy features bustling markets and seaside promenades.
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